This small and nite set of rules is sometimes described as a generative grammar because it can be used to generate or produce sentence structures and not just describe them. Instructions: Identify the POORLY-formed sentences. George) can appear in several different semantic roles.Mary saw a y on the wall.Experiencer theme locationShe borrowed a magazine from George.Agent theme sourceShe squashed the bug with the magazine.Agent theme instrument.She handed the magazine back to George.Agent theme goalGee thanks, said George. . Forexample, we have already seen that a noun phrase can consist of an expressionsuch as the dog (article plus noun), or it (pronoun), or Cathy (proper noun). If the word has multiple meanings(i.e. suathaich or fricatives. [6], Like the personal pronouns, inflected prepositions have emphatic forms derived by adding the following suffixes:[6]. This phrase can be used when speaking to strangers. V NP (PP) (Adv)PP ! The following set of phrase structure rules describe some aspects of the syntax for Scottish Gaelic. An enormous grizzly bear was checking me out. This page was last modified on 20 September 2017, at 15:48. When the verb is intransitive, then the order is still verb initial: When the verb is ditransitive, then the order is VSO followed by a prepositional phrase (PP) indicating the indirect object (i.e. In semantic analysis, there is always an attempt to focus on what the words conventionally mean, rather than on what an individual speaker might think they mean, or want them to mean, on a particular occasion. Phrase: Tapadh leitPronunciation: ta'pa let. Thank you for your comment. If you like this site and find it useful, you can support it by making a donation via PayPal or Patreon, or by contributing in other ways. (10) *Helped George the dog. helped) in the active structure determines the tense of be in the passive structure (e.g. Omniglot is how I make my living. migrated to others parts of Scotland, to North America, and to Australia Answer: Life is too short is tha beatha ro ghoirid. Beatha is life and ghoirid is short. Ro is too, so for example ha e ro fhuar is its too cold.. Would George help Mary?These are all surface structure variations of a single underlying structure. The comedian Groucho Marx knew how to have fun with structural ambiguity. (10) Tehran has shown little interest in resuming stalled negotiations.G We can pour water into a glass and we can ll a glass with water, but we cant *ll water into a glass or *pour a glass with water. spoken mainly in Scotland, and also in Nova Scotia in Canada. The two usages carry a semantic contrast. Yes, of course, go. If you want, you can go.Next, consider this situation, described in Tannen (1986: 67): A Greek woman explained how she and her father (and later her husband)communicated. The words date ( a thing wecan eat) and date ( a point in time) are homonyms. Communication clearly depends on not only recognizing the meaning of words in an utterance, but also recognizing what speakers mean by their utterances. Or, rose is a hyponym of ower. It is our familiarity with metonymy that makes it possible for us to understand He drank the whole bottle, although it sounds absurd literally (i.e. Others, such as PP ( prepositional phrase), seem fairly transparent. Finally, one word is selected thatts the label Art (the) and another that ts N (girl). Clausal negation is marked by the particles cha(n) and nach. (2) He said he was sorry. All these examples are from Sudlow (2001: 47), with minor changes. Useful Scottish Gaelic phrases. It is arguable that feminine gender is under pressure and that the system may be becoming simplified with the feminine paradigms incorporating some typically masculine patterns. Welsh, Languages written with the Latin alphabet. Latin based descriptions, however, assume the first analysis. The number of Gaelic speakers increased between 1755 and 1800 from Were there any examples in this chapter?C Which of the following two tree diagrams could be used to represent the underlying structure of the sentence: George saw the boy with a telescope? Some of these assumptions may be mistaken, of course, but mostly theyre appropriate. "If someone asks someone how they are, a very common answer is 'as happy as a shoe' - tha mi cho sona ri briig" Iona explains. The vocative form of feminine singular nouns is otherwise identical to the nominative; additionally, masculine singular nouns are slenderised in the vocative. There are also regional differences inthe use of synonymous pairs, with candy, chips, diaper and gasoline in AmericanEnglish being equivalents of sweets, crisps, nappy and petrol in British English. Using the sentences in (2)(6), try to decide if this is the best way to describe how all of these English questions are formed and, if it is not, try to formulate a better rule. Everyones invited.TASKSA What do you think is meant by the statement: A context is a psychological construct (Sperber and Wilson, 1995)?B Why is the concept of deictic projection necessary for the analysis of the following deictic expressions? While these languages share spellings of many words, the way they're pronounced is different. (a) The television drank my water. To get more targeted content, please make full-text search by clicking. See the example paradigms below for further details. S SNP VP NP VP V PP V NPTime flies like an arrow fruit flies like a bananaFigure 8.10108 The Study of Language FURTHER READING Basic treatments Miller, J. beautiful, cute, horrible), where would we put them relative to the other types? Overall 1.7% of the population of Scotland has some Gaelic [source]. (1) Theres hundreds of students waiting outside. (2) Normally I dont eat breakfast. All these semantic roles are illustrated in the following scenario. If we only think about the meaning of the phrase as a combination of the meanings of the words, using Furniture Sale as an analogy, we might arrive at an interpretation in which someone is announcing the sale of some very young children. The pronunciation guide isn't perfect, but I got it as close to possible. If he simply answers the How fast part of the question, by giving a speed, he is behaving as if the presupposition is correct. How is it used in the description of the underlined forms in these sentences? In the complement phrase, the part Mary helped you represents a sentence (S), so there must be a rule: CP ! (6) Was the guy who scored the winning goal in the nal playing for love or money? The tha example maintains VSO/VSC word order, where the complement is a prepositional phrase that states what state the subject is in (in the state of being a soldier); cf. A third strategy (camaraderie) that has recently emerged in this culture makes a different assumption: that interaction and connection are good in themselves, that openness is the greatest sign of courtesy. Phrase: de an t-ainm a tha' oirbh?Pronunciation: je un tenem a herev? Linda Crampton from British Columbia, Canada on July 17, 2019: Thank you very much for sharing the phrases. One of the most fascinating aspects of the language is the way in which its morphology (word structure) and phonology (sound system) interact. ), you are behaving as if you have more social power than the other person. )TIME FLIES LIKE AN ARROW; FRUIT FLIES LIKE ABANANA Different underlying structures in Oettingers (1966: 168) example can be seen in Figure 8.10. (5) Pointing to an empty chair in class: Where is she today?Pragmatics 135C What is metapragmatics? We are in the role of experiencer. (c) Could you please sit down? We, being symbol-using creatures, create symbolic fences. We can alsocharacterize the feature that is crucially required in a noun in order for it to appear asthe subject of a particular verb, supplementing the syntactic analysis with semanticfeatures. I heard that there are also people in Canada who know some Scottish Gaelic. In the non-funny interpretation, part of the underlying structure of the rst sentence could be some- thing like: I shot an elephant (while I was) in my pajamas. In the other (ho, ho) interpretation, part of the underlying structure would be something like: I shot an elephant (which was) in my pajamas. There are two different underlying structures with the same surface structure.Syntax 97Tree diagramsOne of the best ways to create a visual representation of underlying syntactic structureis through tree diagrams. C S, or a complement phrase rewrites as a complement and a sentence.106 The Study of Language S VPNP V S NP VP V NP VP V NP PN PN PN John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped you Figure 8.9 This provides us with a small set of rules incorporating recursion, as illustrated here. We might have more success with a rule stating that we put a preposition before a noun phrase (not just a noun). They are used following nouns preceded by possessive pronouns to emphasize the pronominal element. (1) Shes got a bun in the oven. (2) Who would you want to or wanna go out with? The theme can also be an entity (The ball) that is simply being described (i.e. . (i) After looking at the syntactic structure of each Tamasheq sentence, can you add these English translations to appropriate places in the chart?It isnt men who cook porridge.Porridge, men arent the ones who cook it.Men dont cook porridge?Men arent the ones who cook porridge.(ii) Using information from Chapters 7 and 8, can you decide which of theselanguages has the same basic sentence structure as Tamasheq, as shown inexample (1): English, Ewe, Gaelic, Japanese, Latin? After a madainn mhath or feasgar math, this phrase is used to ask how someone is doing. (i) S (ii) S NP VP NP VP V NP PP V NP Art N PPFigure 8.8D In spoken English, the sequence want to is sometimes contracted to wanna, as in I dont wanna go or What do you wanna do tonight?. From a feature analysis like this, we can say that at least part of the meaning of theword girl in English involves the elements [human, female, adult]. (2) Some people expect the government to look after them from the cradle to the grave. N [human]Words as containers of meaningThe approach just outlined is a start on analyzing the conceptual components of wordmeaning, but it is not without problems. (5) Ban an cu an duine beag. Gaelic has two copular "be" verbs, though some grammar books treat them as two parts of a single suppletive verb: Bi: attributes a property to a noun or pronoun; its complement is typically a description that expresses position, state, non-permanent characteristic (see further below), Is: Historically called the copula verb, is can be used in constructions with nominal complements and adjectival complements. (4) In a clothing store, a customer asks a salesperson: Q: Can I try on that dress in the window? (a) teacher: You can borrow my Shakespeare. Gaelic publications include (a) assemble/disassemble (c) dog/schnauzer (g) move/run(b) damp/moist (d) furniture/table (h) peace/piece(c) deep/shallow (f) married/single (i) pen/pen5 Which of the following opposites are gradable, non-gradable, or reversive? (4) In a car that wont start: Maybe Im out of gas. If you say something that represents a threat to another persons self-image, that is called a face-threatening act. I hope no one calls while Im eating lunch. Some may be in Gaelic, others in Pictish. http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaidhlig/ionnsachadh/ECG/ Terms of endearment | If we see, know or enjoy something, were not really performing an action (hence we are not agents). Gaelic has a definite article but no indefinite article: The singular article is often used to designate an entire class. And, gairm (Irish) and ghairm (Scottish Gaelic) both mean calling. To reply: Phrase: That gu math Pronunciation: ha gu ma. Celtiberian, The main reason we use indirect speech acts seems to be that actions such as requests, presented in an indirect way (Could you open that door for me? These rules are called phrase structure rules. With non-gradable antonyms (also called complementary pairs), comparativeconstructions are not normally used. In Canada, according to the 2016 census, Scottish Gaelic is a mother Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. It can be interpreted as consists of or rewrites as. It is typically used in the following type of rule: NP ! That close connection can be based on a containercontents relation (bottle/water, can/juice), a wholepart relation (car/ wheels, house/roof) or a representativesymbol relationship (king/crown, the Presi- dent/the White House). (c) nurse: The hernia in room 5 wants to talk to the doctor. The Latin/English letter set is used, but Gidhlig assigns its own sounds and usages to the letters. although the existence of a common written Classical Gaelic concealed the names are no longer used. Other common examples of synonyms are the pairs:114 The Study of Languagealmost/nearly big/large broad/wide buy/purchasecab/taxi car/automobile couch/sofa freedom/libertyWe should keep in mind that the idea of sameness of meaning used in discussingsynonymy is not necessarily total sameness. There are many occasions when oneword is appropriate in a sentence, but its synonym would be odd. The information in a labeled and bracketed phrase, on theleft, can be expressed in a tree diagram, on the right, as shown in Figure 8.1. In a more general way, we design our linguistic messages on the basis of large-scale assumptions about what our listeners already know. One investigation looked at 84 occurrences of the phrase true feelings in a corpus. One of the main distinctions between these two languages is their pronunciation. (1) Do you usually wake up hungry? thu, has become generalised. Gaelic speakers from Scotland began emigrating to Canada in 1773, The structure of these sentences is: (Particles)+Auxiliary+Subject+Imperfect marker+Verbal+Object, In prescriptive grammars the object is supposed to be in the genitive case although in the spoken language (and in the written forms of most speakers), the object is in the common case. .? (6) She was wearing a white cotton blouse with a short green skirt. Verbal nouns are true nouns in morphology and inherent properties, having gender, case and their occurrence in what are prepositional phrases, and in which non-verbal nouns are also found. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. What is being sold in each case and (if you know) what other words would you add to the description to make it clearer? The question particle is often omitted if it follows a question ending in a vowel. In Scottish Gaelic, a common way to create an adverb is to prefix the adverbial particle, gu-, to an adjective. having some knowledge of Scottish Gaelic. So, dog and horse areco-hyponyms and the superordinate term is animal. Tha iad reusanta is cogaiseach, agus bu chir dhaibh a ghilain ris a chile ann an spiorad brthaireil. The polysemy of lamb allows the two interpret-ations. For instance, we can describe something as the dog or the small dog, each of which is a noun phrase (NP). between vowels, and unaspirated at the end of words. Some of our partners may process your data as a part of their legitimate business interest without asking for consent. in any combination of two languages in the Phrase Finder. read and write Gaelic, 57,600 could speak Gaelic, 6,100 could read and/or )to people whose culture is more oriented to indirectness and avoiding direct impos-ition, then you will be considered impolite. Do you think that the word with the highest score would indicate the prototype?bowl atware ladle soup spooncrockery fork mug spooncup glass plate teaspooncutlery glassware platter tumblerdish knife saucer wineglass(For background reading, see chapter 1 of Ungerer and Schmid, 2006. In the nursery rhyme Mary had a little lamb, we think of a smallanimal, but in the comic version Mary had a little lamb, some rice and vegetables, wethink of a small amount of meat. speak, read or write it. Some of the basic components of a word like needle in English might include thin, sharp, steel instrument. These components would be part of the conceptual meaning of needle. Before a word beginning with a vowel, some of the determiners have elided forms, or require a linking consonant.[6]. (c) Can George see the dog? City. In Gaelic the normal present tense of all verbs except bi is absent. Instrument and experiencer If an agent uses another entity in order to perform an action, that other entity lls the role of instrument. In the chart above the broad pronunciations of the Gaulish, communities in Canada, particularly in Nova Scotia (Alba Nuadh) Inglis, which by then was known as Scots, became the official language For example, the Scottish pronounce "Gaelic" as GAA-lik, whereas the Irish say GAY-lik, even though the word is spelled the same way. Most commonly one will see classificatory or adjectival complements, as shown below: Historically called the substantive verb, tha (the present indicative independent 3rd person singular form of bi) can be used in constructions with adjectival complements, locative predicates, and in aspectually marked sentences (MacAulay, page 180). This reects another goal of syntactic analysis, which is to have a small and nite (i.e. Pronunciation: ta'pa liev. This approach is concerned with objective or general meaning and avoids trying to account for subjective or local meaning. It is recognizing the polysemy of leg and foot in the riddle What has four legs,but only one foot? rule for each sentence, or more general rules that describe multiple sentences. It has two distinct underlying interpretations that have to be represented differently in deep structure. (e) Computer chips created an important new technology(f) Im going to sue your ass! Can you add other examples?and all that maybe sometimesand everything now and again sort of blueand stuff like that occasionally thingmajig136 The Study of Languagearound seven possibly thingyheaps of probably tons ofloads of sevenish whatsisnameApproximators ( not exactly): _________________________General extenders ( there is more): _____________________Vague nouns ( inherently vague): ______________________Vague amounts ( how many/much?): ___________________Vague frequency ( how often?): ________________________Vague possibility ( how likely?): _______________________H Certain types of questionanswer jokes or riddles seem to depend for their effect on the reanalysis of a presupposition in the question after the answer is given. These words seem to be treated as co-hyponyms of both fruit and vegetable in different contexts. (5) *Ban an cu an dune beag. Gaelic has no indefinite article. southeast and northeast. Wecan then look at similar descriptions of sentences in other languages such as Gaelic,Japanese or Spanish and see clearly what structural differences exist. (9) *George Mary dog. if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[300,250],'omniglot_com-medrectangle-4','ezslot_0',160,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-omniglot_com-medrectangle-4-0'); It is thought that Scottish Gaelic developed from the Old Irish bought (5) I hate lobsters anymore. And if you are asked the question When did you stop smoking?, there are at least two presuppositions involved. (1) war skdiwan meddan asink Men dont cook porridge.(not) (cook) (men) (porridge)(2) meddan a waren iskdiw asink _________________________(3) asink, meddan a waren t-iskdiw _______________________(4) wadde medan a isakadawan asink ______________________(5) meddan war skdiwan asink? (6) The Pentagon has announced plans to upgrade their cybersecurity. The investigation of those assumptions and expectations provides us with some insights into how we understand more than just the linguistic content of utterances. if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[336,280],'omniglot_com-medrectangle-4','ezslot_5',160,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-omniglot_com-medrectangle-4-0'); If you would like to make any corrections or additions to this page, or if Nouns can be classified into a number of major declension classes, with a small number of nouns falling into minor patterns or irregular paradigms. In order to talk about this process, we need to expand our phrase structure rules toinclude an auxiliary verb (Aux) as part of the sentence. If you dont actually have that social power (e.g. We can go further and make a broad distinction between conceptual meaning and associative meaning. . http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaidhlig/ionnsachadh/bgfp/ (7) They have two children. ", The emphatic pronouns are used to express emphasis or contrast:[6]. .). In this article, the leniting effect of such words is indicated, where relevant, by the superscript "+L" (e.g. Here's how to say "good morning" and "good afternoon/evening" in Gaelic. Are they, for example, similar to indirect speech acts? In the sentences The boy cut the rope with an old razor and He drew the picture with a crayon, the noun phrases an old razor and a crayon are being used in the semantic role of instrument. II We could propose that passive sentences (George was helped by Mary) are derived from active structures (Mary helped George) via a movement rule such as the following: (active) NP1 V NP2 > NP2 be V-ed by NP1 (passive) Note that the tense, past or present, of the V (e.g. In 2005, the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act was established. Prep NPLexical rulesPhrase structure rules generate structures. The word clothes doesnt appear in the message, but we can bring that idea to our interpretation of the message as we work out what the advertiser intended us to understand. Can you list the unmarked members and explain your choices?big/small heavy/lightempty/full old/youngexpensive/inexpensive possible/impossiblefast/slow short/tallhappy/unhappy strong/weakSemantics 121D Which of these pairs of words are converses (also known as reciprocal antonymy)?above/below enter/exitasleep/awake follow/precedebrother/sister husband/wifebuy/sell older/youngerdoctor/patient true/falsedry/wetE Another less common relation between word meanings is known as transferred epithet or hypallage. (a) George will follow Mary. According to phrase structure rules for Scottish Gaelic: According Access to over 100 million course-specific study resources, 24/7 help from Expert Tutors on 140+ subjects, Full access to over 1 million Textbook Solutions. (1) The boy kicked the ball. NP VPNP ! the word BANK on a wall of a building is understood as a nancial institution). Lenition (sometimes inaccurately referred to as "aspiration"), as a grammatical process, affects the pronunciation of initial consonants, and is indicated orthographically by the addition of an h: Lenition is not indicated in writing for words beginning with l, n or r. Nor does it affect words that begin with either a vowel, or with sg, sm, sp, or st. The impersonal construction uses a verbal ending -adh. (3) I bet you $20. to see a definition of the term syntax see Syntax (definition). Nouns have three grammatical numbers: singular, dual (vestigially) and plural. Practice saying the whole phrase as if it were all one word, with no breaks in it. As mature speakers of a language, we all know which words tend to occur with other words. In SG, there is no morphological marker for causativizing utterances, but causatives may be formed using the verb thoir and the adposition air. 88 The Study of LanguageS NP NP V Art N Art N Adj [Chunnaic] [an] [gille] [an] [cu] [dubh]Figure 7.6One obvious difference between the structure of this Gaelic sentence and its Englishcounterpart is the fact that the verb comes rst in the sentence. are those preceded or followed by i or e. Most consonants have different instruction in others. Art (Adj) N NP ! What is the difference between these two ways of using words?C The adjective pairs listed here are antonyms with a marked and unmarked member in each pair. So, how do we decide that the sign means this when the sign doesnt even have the word car on it? This will describe a large number of phrases, but does it describe all (and only) the prepositional phrases in English? The exact same clausal construction may also take an entire non-finite clausal complement: The exact same sentence may be used in an agentless variety: Cross-linguistically, there is a distinction between verbs that describe states of being and other verbs which entail some dynamic motion or action. This lead many (a) Move! ", Is ann {an d} a thug Iain an leabhar do Anna, is in-it yesterday REL gave Ian the book to Anna, "It was yesterday that Ian gave the book to Anna. that appear in some syntactic combinations, for example, after some determiners (see below).[5]. Calum chunnaic an gille. The rst rule in the following set of simple (and necessarily incomplete) phrasestructure rules states that a sentence rewrites as a noun phrase and a verb phrase.The second rule states that a noun phrase rewrites as either an article plus anoptional adjective plus a noun, or a pronoun, or a proper noun. The other rulesfollow a similar pattern.S ! (2) *Bhuail an beag cu Tearlach. Common Scottish Words. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic As indicated in the following table, some possessive determiners lenite the following word. So, thefeature that the noun boy has is animate ( denotes an animate being) andthe feature that the noun hamburger has is animate ( does not denote ananimate being). Kawasaki example, a successful act of reference depends more on thelistener/readers ability to recognize what the speaker/writer means than on thelisteners dictionary knowledge of a word that is used. ?, Are they . (4) The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence. (Glaschu), Edinburgh (Dn Eideann) and Examples are the pairs: animal/horse, insect/ant, ower/rose. agentLexical relations Not only can words be treated as containers of meaning, or as fullling roles in events, they can also have relationships with each other. Art N This is simply a shorthand way of saying that a noun phrase (NP) such as the dog consists of or rewrites as (!) " Bu tu an gaisgeach! read the Bible in Gaelic. It also shows veryexplicitly that there are different levels in the analysis. The diagram in Figure 7.6 makes it clear that this Gaelic sentence is organizedwith a V NP NP structure, which is rather different from the NP V NP structure wefound in the English sentence analyzed earlier.Why study grammar?It is not, of course, the aim of this type of analysis that we should be able to drawcomplicated-looking diagrams in order to impress our friends. The order of elements uses some form of the verb bi, followed by the subject followed by the nonverbal predicate: Tenseless absolutive construction with a prepositional phrase predicate: Tenseless absolutive construction with an adjectival predicate: Tenseless absolutive construction with a nominal predicate: Adger and Ramchand (2003:(13), (14), (15), (19)). of Nova Scotia. Tower of Babel | During the early 20th century, for example, pupils in Nova This simple example is an illustration of a procedure for analyzing meaning interms of semantic features. Can you identify the reanalyzed presuppositions involved in the following jokes (from Ritchie, 2002)? Copyright 19982023 Simon Ager | Email: | Hosted by Kualo, A comparison of the six modern Celtic languages, Celtic cognates - words that are similar in the Celtic languages, Celtiadur - a dictionary of Celtic cognates, http://www.akerbeltz.org/fuaimean/roradh.htm, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic, http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaidhlig/ionnsachadh/, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Gaelic, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_phonology, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_orthography, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Gaelic, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_medium_education_in_Scotland, http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/alba/foghlam/beag_air_bheag/, http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaidhlig/ionnsachadh/bgfp/, http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaidhlig/ionnsachadh/ECG/. If you are interested in studying Scottish Gaelic further, here are some useful resources. Why not? (Weve barely scratched the surface structures.) Available online at http://chronicle.com Section: The Chronicle Review volume 55, issue 32, page B15 Constituent analysis Payne, T. (2006) Exploring Language Structure (chapter 6) Cambridge University Press Gaelic sentence structure Brown, K. and J. Miller (1991) Syntax: A Linguistic Introduction to Sentence Structure (2nd edition) Routledge English grammar courses Celce-Murcia, M. and D. Larsen-Freeman (1999) The Grammar Book (2nd edition) Heinle & Heinle Yule, G. (1998) Explaining English Grammar Oxford University Press English reference grammars Huddleston, R. and G. Pullum (2005) A Students Introduction to English Grammar Cambridge University Press Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language Longman Other references Inoue, K. (1979) Japanese In T. Shopen (ed.) (2012) Syntax (3rd edition) Wiley-Blackwell On Gaelic syntax Brown, K. and J. Miller (1991) Syntax: A Linguistic Introduction to Sentence Structure (2nd edition) Routledge Other references Fromkin, V., R. Rodman and N. Hyams (2014) An Introduction to Language (10th edition) Wadsworth Sudlow, D. (2001) The Tamasheq of North-East Burkina Faso R. Koppe VerlagCHAPTER 9 Semantics This one time I was ying out of SFO (San Francisco) and I happened to have a jar of home-made quince preserves in my carry-on.