Felony probation and recidivism: Replication and response. Federal Probation 50, 1725. The research questions will determine the appropriate methodology for the study. There are several common designs used in criminal justice and criminology research. The next step in the research process is the collection of the data based on the research design developed. 56 Snell, Tracy L. (2011, December). According to a recent Gallup poll, 52% of Americans say the death penalty is applied fairly in the United States, the lowest mark in almost 40 years.53 The issue of fairness and the death penalty typically concerns whether the punishment is equally imposed on offenders who are equally deserving based on legal factors (i.e., similar offense, similar prior criminal history, similar aggravating circumstances, and similar mitigating circumstances).54 Unfairness can be shown if similarly situated offenders are more or less likely to receive death sentences based on age, gender, and race. it is illogical and counterproductive to operate on policies derived primarily from politics, An example is Halloween sadism. However, the research protocol to implement field research is the same whether you are studying an indigenous Indian tribe in South America in anthropology or a group of heroin users in St. Louis in criminal justice. How is knowledge developed through research methods different from other sources of knowledge? Capital punishment, 2010statistical tables. The keystone of inquiry is observation T/F True 2. The findings and results of the study can be communicated through reports, journals, books, or computer presentations. The study of research methods is the study of the basic rules, appropriate techniques, and relevant procedures for conducting research. scale developed in this study identifies disinterest and relevance argumentation, in addition to math anxiety, as part of student apprehension and resistance to research methods. The Choice Theory shift attention to deviant activity or the act of engaging in criminal. Why should you believe research findings if the study is faulty? When probation becomes more dreaded than prison. scale are illustrated below. (1992). It seems clear that besides the death penalty, the most severe punishment available in our criminal justice system is to lock up offenders in prison. 76 Example is excerpted from Amy B. Thistlethwaite and John D. Wooldredge. When assessing recidivism rates, the study found that the majority of offenders sentenced to probation recidivated during the follow-up period, which averaged 31 months. Forty studies that changed criminal justice: Explorations into the history of criminal justice research. Secondary data analysis is discussed in Chapter 7. We gain knowledge from parents, teachers, experts, and others who are in positions of authority in our lives. It is also at this stage that the researcher can pose additional research questions that may now need to be answered as a result of the research study. A more satisfying system of justice is needed, and with this in mind, reformers in the field of penology are looking at alternative forms of achieving justice. As applied to the criminal justice system, when we are inclined to be critical of the criminal justice system, it is pretty easy to notice its every failing and ignore its successes. All of the treatment studies included at least one measure of offender recidivism, such as whether or not offenders were rearrested or violated their parole. The events are not wrong. Toward equity and efficiency in law enforcement: Differential police response. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Informed consumers of books C. Experts in the department D. Expert readers If you were a patrol officer in the early 1970s and asked your supervisor, Why do I drive around randomly throughout my assigned area when I am not answering a call for service? the answer would have been, That is the way we have always done patrol and random patrol reduces crime through deterrence. The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment challenged the tradition knowledge that preventive/random patrol reduces crime. Various research designs will be covered in Chapters 47. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Employers spend at least $2 billion a year to look into the pasts of their prospective employees. In fact, thousands of research questions are asked and answered each year in research involving criminal justice and criminological topics. On occasion, it is useful for police officers to be able to overpower suspects by demonstrating superior physical strength, but those types of activities are rare in law enforcement. Criminology 36, 763797. Often these studies require the review and analysis of documents such as police reports and court records and interviews with the offender and others. For example, discussing research methods in a popular culture framework may resonate with students and lead to engaged students who are more interested in the subject matter and identify with the relevance of research methods to criminal justice in general and the future careers of students, in particular. Politicians are sometimes taken as a source of authority knowledge about the law, crime, and criminal justice issues. (2005). Identification and recognition of inequities in our justice system (in this case that young, African American males are punished more severely in our justice system) is the first step in mitigating this inequity. (1985). (2006). Most government agencies, including the criminal justice system, as well as private industry, routinely rely on data analysis. By the mid-1980s, probation was the most frequently used sentence in most states and its use was becoming more common for felons, whereas previously, probation was typically limited to misdemeanor crimes and offenses committed by juveniles. Gaining knowledge through actual experiences is known as personal experience knowledge, and it has a powerful and lasting impact on everyone. The observer falsely concludes his findings because of biased observations. Second, female officers are less likely to use excessive force. Taking what is learned throughout this text, critical evaluation of research is covered in Chapter 8, and upon completing this text, it is hoped that you will be an informed consumer of research and will put your research knowledge to use throughout your career. It is easy to find instances that confirm our beliefs, but with selective observation, the complete picture is not being viewed. Certainly the use of a particular method will be more common in one discipline in comparison to another, but the protocol for implementing the method to complete the research study is the same. Lombrosos research has been discredited because he failed to compare criminals with noncriminals. (2006). Martinsons article provided policy makers the evidence to justify spending cuts on rehabilitative programs. Differential police response has been shown to save departments money and give patrol officers more time to engage in community-oriented and proactive policing activities. Once familiar with research methods, your anxiety about reviewing technical reports and research findings can be minimized. No matter how you got here, two things are probably true. It is clear that these errors can have substantial ramifications, including damaged reputations and loss of job opportunities. In May 2012, extensive media attention was given to the case of the Miami man who ate the face of a homeless man for an agonizing 18 minutes until police shot and killed the suspect. Circular reasoning. 81 Simon, R. (1967). Each chapter builds upon the previous chapters, illustrating and discussing more about the research process. It will help you better understand the process of asking and answering a question systematically and be a better consumer of the kind of information that you really need to be the best criminal justice professional you can. The myth that prisons can be self-supporting. 209213 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. Probation officers were now expected to be surveillance officers instead of treatment personnel, which required specialized training. In this research design, documents, publications, or presentations are reviewed and analyzed. This puts the criminal justice system in a difcult position, according to Quinney. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, p. 19. The authors of this article believe that student apprehension goes beyond math anxiety; that math anxiety is too simplistic of an explanation of student fear of research methods courses. You need to have familiarity with all research designs so that you can become an educated consumer of research. A persons expertise is typically limited to a few core areas of significant knowledge; a person is not an expert in all areas. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim. (2010). As previously stated, even though the research evidence shows otherwise, Scared Straight programs still exist and there is even a television show devoted to the program. After careful analysis by Best, there is not a single, known example of children being seriously injured or killed by contaminated candy given by strangers. Almost 139,000 cases were examined. During one of my mock traffic stops, I received information that the vehicle I stopped was stolen. The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice, Seventh Edition demonstrates the vital role research plays in criminology and criminal justice by integrating in-depth, real-world. illogical reasoning ideas or arguments that are illogical ideology and politics bias in defining research problems and conducting research that stems from ideology and/or politics overgeneralization observing only a few cases and assuming what is true for them is true for all cases selective observation 67 Jones, G. Mark. Criminal justice and criminological research is important for several reasons. In comparison, serving prison time is easier.62, For example, one study found that about one-third of nonviolent offenders given the option of participating in an Intensive Supervision Probation (ISP) program, chose prison instead because the prospects of working every day and submitting to random drug tests was more punitive than serving time in prison.73 Prisoners also stated that they would likely be caught violating probation conditions (i.e., high risk of program failure) and be sent to prison anyway.74 In another research study involving survey responses from 415 inmates serving a brief prison sentence for a nonviolent crime, prison was considered the eighth most severe sanction, with only community service and probation seen as less punitive. 65 Parker, Mary. The survey instrument consisted of questions to assess the length of time to respond to a call and the outcome of the call (i.e., arrest). The business of background checks on prospective employees is increasing significantly. Four general errors in every day reasoning: 1. 2 Betz, N. E. (1978). Without being an educated consumer of research, you will not be able to differentiate between useful and not useful research. However, without adequate prison space, the courts had no other alternatives besides probation when sentencing offenders. The researchers then created five items to assess Disinterest and five items intended to measure Relevance Argumentation. Forty studies that changed criminal justice: Explorations into the history of criminal justice research. Rehabilitation remained the goal of our correctional system until the early 1970s, when the efficacy of rehabilitation was questioned. The negative comments mention the difficulty of the course and the relevance of the course (e.g., I am going to be a police officer, so why do I need to take a research methods course?). I am not the type to do well in mathematics. The private companies create a system in which a computer program scrapes the public files of court systems around the country to retrieve personal data. Los Angeles: Roxbury. To do this, he put a teenage friend of. Four hours of exposure to prison life is not going to counteract years of delinquency and turn a delinquent into a nondelinquent. 12 Conrad, J. Criminal man, according to the classification of Cesare Lombroso. What myths about crime and criminal justice have been dispelled through research? For example, in Step 3, the variables were music preference and violent delinquency. Even when our senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell are fully operational, our minds have to interpret what we have sensed, which may lead to an inaccurate observation. (2007). This was the most surprising finding from the study because it challenged one of the basic underlying principles of police patrol. The observation helped to fuel arguments against the use of Durham, which, in turn, contributed to its demise as a legal rule. For example, if someone believes the police commonly use excessive force, the person is more likely to pay attention to and remember a police brutality allegation on the nightly news than a police pursuit that led to the apprehension of the suspect without incident on the same nightly news. Perhaps you have a quiz or exam soon. Research methods can be seen as a sequential process with the first step being followed by the second step, and so on. and the panacea phenomenon. The errors of Lombroso seem obvious now, but what do we know today through authority knowledge that is inaccurate or will be proven wrong in the future? . The particular case connects to the 8th Amendment and how it is against the law . Everyone must obey the law, because it's illegal to break it. In other words, the research questions dictate the methods used to answer them. 5. 73 Petersilia, Joan. Some believed the system was too lenient on offenders. It is important to note that although this section will focus on the failings of these knowledge sources, they each can be, and certainly are, accurate at times, and thus are valuable sources of knowledge. (2006). The first step in the research process is typically the identification of a problem or topic that the researcher is interested in studying. The research showed that xanthohumol, a compound found in hops, slowed the growth of prostate cancer cells and also the growth of cells that cause enlarged prostates. House cats must also be ruthless killers. I dont think that I could do advanced math. Alcohol, drugs, and violence. Annual Review of Sociology 24, 291311, p. 291. The most common means for data analysis today is through the use of a computer and statistically oriented software. Knowing research methods will help me earn a living. APPLIED RESEARCH METHODS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE and CRIMINOLOGY, 1. Despite the options these designs offer, other research designs are available and will be discussed later in the text. In simplest terms syllogism states that if A=B and B=C, then A=C. Under MNaghten, criminal responsibility was absent when the offender did not understand the nature of his actions due to failure to distinguish right from wrong. This is known as the right/wrong test for criminal responsibility. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. (2010). our interpretations are not based upon logical, sound reasoning. The Math Anxiety Scale responses for the 80 students ranged from 0 to 30 with a mean of 14, demonstrating a moderate level of math anxiety among the study participants. Besides math anxiety, the researchers think that apprehension is caused by student indifference to the subject matter and irrelevance of the course because it does not apply to the real world. They state that student apprehension in research methods and statistics courses is due to three main factors: Taken together, the reconceptualization is known as D.RA.MA., and the combination of these three factors constitutes the D.RA.MA. 19 Best, Joel. Therefore, they both must be the product of complex design. Data analysis and statistics are discussed in Chapter 9. However, it is important for professors to recognize that no single approach will reduce research methods resistance and apprehension for all students. Second, a follow-up survey was mailed to citizens whom the police had contacted during their response. Hypothesis development is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. You are exposed to research findings in the media (e.g., television, newspapers, and online), in personal interaction with others (e.g., friends and family, doctors, and professors), as well as in class. Los Angeles: Roxbury. At the time of Simons 1967 study, most courts across the country still followed the MNaghten rule. The myth that correctional rehabilitation does not work. 227238 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. In the this article I learned about how a James Ingraham, a 14 year-old eighth-grader was put through a cruel punishment after he was misbehaving in school. However, there are four errors that occur in the knowledge gained from personal experiences: overgeneralization, selective observation, illogical reasoning, and resistance to change. The D.RA.MA. It was believed that the fear felt by the participants would lead to a discontinuation of their delinquent behavior so that they would not end up in prison themselves. Supervision may have become compromised as a result and this could have explained why these counties had high rates of recidivism. This sequential process is one of the advantages of understanding research methods, because once you understand the process, you can apply that process to any research question that interests you. For crimes in progress, rapid response is critical and may reduce the injuries sustained by the victim as well, but these emergency calls usually account for less than 2% of all 9-1-1 calls for police service. What type of data analysis was conducted and what conclusions were made? However, the defendant was acquitted in only five of the 26 Durham trials. We probably should have started the chapter with the question What is research? but we wanted to initially lay a foundation for the question with a discussion of the problems with how knowledge is developed and the power of research in discovering the truth. An example of the potential impact of the media on the actual operations of the criminal justice system involves the CSI: Crime Scene Investigation television shows. Calls for service: Citizen demand and initial police response. For several years, the MNaghten rule was the legal rule applied in all courts of the United States. However, every one of you will be exposed to research findings in your professional and personal lives for the remainder of your lives. This chapter began with a discussion of sources of knowledge development and the problems with each. In addition to anxiety and apprehension over the course material, research methods can be boring if you only read and learn about it with no particular purpose in mind. 44 Lersch, Kim. Police departments allocated substantial resources to the patrol function and deployed officers in an effort to improve response time through the use of the 9-1-1 telephone number, computer-assisted dispatch, and beat assignment systems. Syllogism is probably the most simple of the 3 types of deductive reasoning. When the expected sophisticated forensic evidence is not presented in the real trial, the juror is more likely to vote to acquit the defendant. 54 Applegate, Brandon. Criminal justice students employed with these agencies will be challenged if not prepared for quantitative tasks. Illogical reasoning: Illogical reasoning is the failure to give an appealing justification for the findings. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. Scared straight! Research methods does not reflect the real world.. The Straw Man. American Journal of Police 12, 132. frequently simplistic and illogical. 13 Finckenauer, James O. The contributions of academic and policy-oriented research can be seen across the whole range of correctional functions from pretrial services through probation, institutional corrections, and parole. and social processes, including questions related to criminology and criminal . The study reviewed in this section asked the following research question: Are jurors able to understand different legal rules for establishing a defendants criminal responsibility? Further, the probation departments in these counties had experienced significant budget cuts. As another example, if you believe treatment efforts on sex offenders are futile, you will pay attention to and remember each sex offender you hear about that recidivates but will pay little attention to any successes. The continued use of probation as a sanction for felony offenders appeared to be putting the public at risk. Steffensmeier, Ulmer, and Kramer83 hypothesized that African Americans overall were not likely to be treated more harshly than white defendants by the courts because it was only particular subgroups of minority defendants that fit with court actors stereotypes of more dangerous offenders. Court personnel are aware of these interaction effects based on this study, and others that followed, as well as their personal experiences in the criminal justice system. A fellow student bombed a test because they lack diligence and intelligence (and not because they took the same test as you with all those trick questions). Despite the increase in the use of probation in the 1980s, few empirical studies of probation (particularly its use with felony offenders) had been published. 1 Ad hominem An ad hominem fallacy is one that attempts to invalidate an opponent's position based on a personal trait or fact about the opponent rather than through logic. 2 Red herring In addition, states needed to explore the possibility of broadening the legal authority of its probation officers by allowing them to act as law enforcement officers if necessary. It is common to draw conclusions about people and society from our personal interactions, but, in reality, our experiences are limited because we interact with just a small percentage of people in society. The myth of prisons as country clubs. 201208 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. First, even though our personal experience may be counter to our belief system, it is hard to admit we were wrong after we have taken a position on an issue. If the odds of success are unlikely, it is illogical to assume that by sheer willpower it can be made to occur. Property offenders were more likely to recidivate compared to violent or drug offenders. Perhaps the book has been gathering dust on your shelf since the first day of class and you are not doing well in your research methods class and are looking for the book to help with course improvement. Researchers use systematic, well-established research practices to seek answers to their questions. These two counties were not randomly selected, but were chosen because of their large probation populations and the willingness of departments to provide information. Los Angeles: Roxbury. (2006). Problems with the business of background checks were identified through research that included a review of thousands of pages of court filings and interviews with dozens of court officials, data providers, lawyers, victims, and regulators. Today, the study remains one of the most highly cited pieces of corrections research. (1985, November). Some additional myths about corrections that research does not support include: Prisons are too lenient in their day-to-day operations (prisons as country clubs).64, Prisons can be self-supporting if only prisoners were forced to work.65, Private prisons are more cost effective than state-run prisons.66, Focus of community corrections is rehabilitation rather than punishment.67, Correctional rehabilitation does not work.68, Drug offenders are treated leniently by the criminal justice system.69, Most death row inmates will be executed eventually.70, If correctional sanctions are severe enough, people will think twice about committing crimes.71, Sexual violence against and exploitation of inmates of the same gender are primarily the result of lack of heterosexual opportunities.72. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. For example, if a researcher wanted to learn more about gangs and their activities, he may hang out with a gang in order to observe their behavior. The problems generated by each knowledge source were also discussed. Obviously, this throws his research conclusions, that red wine has a beneficial impact on the aging process, into question. Here is Circular Reasoning example with just rewording same statement. 25 Kuhns III, Joseph B., and Charisse T. M. Coston. A good example of tradition knowledge is preventive/random patrol. Research and development in corrections. Federal Probation 49, 6971. Overall, 65% of the sample of probationers were re-arrested and 51 % were charged with and convicted of another offense. The myth that public attitudes are punitive. 149157 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. Follow-ups on these reported incidents led to the conclusion that most of these reports were hoaxes. Demystifying crime and criminal justice. The errors can start with a mistake entered into the logs of a law enforcement agency or a court file. Some additional myths about the police that research does not support include: Police target minorities for traffic stops and arrests.36, Most crimes are solved through forensic science.37, Intensive law enforcement efforts at the street level will lead to the control of illicit drug use and abuse.39, Police work primarily entails responding to crimes in progress or crimes that have just occurred.40, Detectives are most responsible for solving crimes and arresting offenders.42. How do we measure disinterest, relevance argumentation, and math anxiety experienced by students enrolled in research methods courses? Correctional privatization and the myth of inherent efficiency. 214220 in Bohm, Robert M., and Jeffrey T. Walker. 37 Cordner, Gary, and Kathryn E. Scarborough. Persuasive speakers should be concerned with what strengthens and weakens an argument. 1. The efforts of criminal justice researchers in policing have been important and have created the initial and critical foundation necessary for the further development of effective and productive law enforcement. Program developers assumed that brief exposure to the harsh realities of prison would deter juveniles from future delinquency. This step in the research process is also discussed in Chapter 2. Although the Scared Straight program sounds good, it is illogical to assume that a brief experience with prison life will have a stronger impact on the decisions made by delinquents than peer support for delinquency, drug abuse, lack of education, poor parental supervision, and other factors that influence delinquency. One of the advantages of taking a research methods course is that you learn about the process of research methods. People accept myths as accurate knowledge of reality when, in fact, the knowledge is false. Research has shown that female patrol officers are less likely to be involved in high-speed pursuits, incidents of deadly force, and the use of excessive force. Criminal justice or criminology research is often conducted with the intention of providing scientific information to major decision-makers within the field who may then implement plans to handle crime based on these studies. Los Angeles: Roxbury. The Scared Straight program is an example of illogical reasoning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. It is common for the results of previous research to generate new research questions and hypotheses for the researcher.
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