The 13- and 14-year-olds are more likely to drink alcohol if, when they were between 5 and 10 years old, their mothers worked night shifts.71. Source: Strickland et al. Isabel V. Sawhill, Beyond Marriage, New York Times, September 14, 2014. Henly and Lambert, 2010. 45. 12. A child whose parent has only a high school education is twice as likely to be living with a never-married mother than with two parents (35 versus 18 percent), whereas a child with a college-educated parent is more than five times as likely to be living with two parents than with a never-married mother (48 versus 9 percent). Kevin Drum, Americas Real Criminal Element: Lead, Mother Jones, January/February 2013. Social dysfunction and mental illness in a community sample The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of the association between psychiatric disorders and various social problems. Although the white and black children came from economically similar families, the black children came from poorer neighborhoods.88. We thank Calum Provan for editorial assistance. 26. See note 37. How do taxes and spending work, and where do you fit in? See note 37. 9. Crime rates fell more rapidly in states where leaded gasoline was banned more quickly.110. 3 (2005): 23349. Children raised by single parents have lower average outcomes than children raised by two parents. * Ratio is not calculable because there were reported minutes for white adults but not for black adults. : National Institute on Out-of-School Time, Wellesley Centers for Women, Wellesley College, January 2006. We next review the plausible pathways by which the characteristic influences youths outcomesi.e., how these predictions might reflect causality. Food grown in contaminated soil continues to carry lead. . Washington, D.C.: Future of Children, Fall 2010, at p. 3. While the study did find such interests among both adult and K-12 . 2 (2012), 20327. Nevin, 2000. Young African American men as a group are less employable because they are discriminatorily incarcerated at very high rates. - Presides over all meetings for your Student Council - Prepares an agenda for all meetings with the help of the advisor - Vote only in the case of a tie - Perform any duties assigned by the. Haskins, 2015. Drum, 2013. The Affordable Care Act includes funding for visiting nurse programs, but they serve few families needing this support. A network of state and local organizations improving workers' lives through research and advocacy. The other seems to be that data showing a greater harmful effect from night than from evening or rotating shift work results from the experience of two-parent families where parents organize their schedules so that when one is working, the other is available to supervise children. 2023 Economic Policy Institute Full-service school-based health centers should be expanded, providing full pediatric, dental, and optometric services to schoolchildren and their families. David Grissmer, Kevin J. Grimm, Sophie M. Aiyer, William M. Murrah, and Joel S. Steele, Fine Motor Skills and Early Comprehension of the World: Two New School Readiness Indicators, Developmental Psychology 46, no. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2013. In 2013, the actual upper limits of the bottom four income quintiles were approximately $28,600, $51,400, $79,300, and $121,700. Nancy E. Hill and Diana F. Tyson, Parental Involvement in Middle School: A Meta-Analytic Assessment of the Strategies That Promote Achievement, Developmental Psychology45, no. 69, No. 129. Low Level Lead Exposure Harms Children: A Renewed Call for Primary Prevention. This analysis does not imply that school improvement cannot improve the outcomes of disadvantaged children, but rather that policies other than school improvement should be given strong consideration, as should the possibility that at least some of these policies may be more powerful levers for raising the achievement of disadvantaged children than the school improvement strategies that policymakers conventionally consider and advocate. This does not mean that schools are ineffective with lower SES children; rather, lower SES gains resemble those of higher quintiles, and initial gaps are left mostly unchanged.17, Low-income parents of children in Head Start who spend more time reading to their children, visit the library more often, keep more childrens books in the home, and begin reading to their children at an earlier age have children with higher literacy skills. 71. White parents consistently reported greater frequency than black parents. The share of children living with a single mother varies by childrens race and social class. 8. 3 (2009): 68095. Do Unpredictable Hours Undermine Upward Mobility? Sawhill, 2014. 128. This report has reviewed only a few of many social and economic characteristics that influence youth outcomes. 13 (April 5, 2013): 246 (Table 1). May 16, Annual Caring Force State House Rally, Providers' Council (Massachusetts) May 17-19, Washington State Nonprofit Conference, Nonprofit Association of Washington. President 2. Such characteristics interact, so precise estimates are not possible for the shares of achievement gaps attributable to specific social class differences, just as they are not possible for the shares attributable to teacher performance or other school qualities. 3 (2009): 11134. As a result, contemporary education reform efforts focus disproportionately on school and teacher incentives and do little to narrow achievement gaps. Stacey Storch Bracken and Janet E. Fischel, Family Reading Behavior and Early Literacy Skills in Preschool Children From Low-income Backgrounds,Early Education and Development 19, no. Scholars who gave us invaluable advice as we prepared this report include David Berliner, Jared Bernstein, Christopher Edley, Peter J. Fugiel, David Grissmer, Wen-Jui Han, Ronald Haskins, Susan J. Lambert, Daniel P. Miller, Lawrence Mishel, Susan B. Neuman, Elyse Pivnick, John Schlitt, Heather L. Schwartz, David Ribar, and Peter Simon, along with three anonymous reviewers. 48. White parents are only two-thirds as likely to be assigned non-daytime shifts as minority parents. Report of Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control, 2012. However, the relative share of immigrants in the African American population is still not large enough to preclude the usefulness of the category.. 1 (2007): 13956. Have them cook the entire meal with a main dish, drinks, desserts, and table decorations. 50. See note 99. 7 (2005): 894. Susan J. Lambert, Peter J. Fugiel, and Julia R. Henly, Precarious Work Schedules Among Early-Career Employees in the U.S.: A National Snapshot, Research Brief, University of Chicago, Employment Instability, Family Well-Being, and Social Policy Network, August 27, 2014. 88. Student Council Constitution The Institution Students' Council shall consist of the following members, namely: 1. d. ECLS asks about typical activities; ATUS asks specifically about time spent the previous day, generating more accurate responses. Although black children are more likely to be living with the mother alone than white children, the share of both white and black children in single-parent homes has grown, partly because falling real wages have made it more challenging for women to find marriage partners who earn sufficient incomes to support families.30 The greater rates of unemployment and incarceration and the lower wages for young black than for young white men help explain racial differences in single parenthood. ECLSs query about books at home, however, is more concrete and likely reliable. See note 64. All the boys bring Adolescents are vulnerable to psychosocial problems because of physical and physiological changes that occur in their body during this developmental stage. 80. Thurston Domina, Leveling the Home Advantage: Assessing the Effectiveness of Parental Involvement in Elementary School, Sociology of Education 78, no. Social Dysfunctions of the Student Council is that some of the members didn't participated which resulted to poor productivity of the team. Although about one in four children lived with a mother alone in 2013, twice as many had lived with a mother alone at some time during childhood.31. 16. Other characteristics, all associated with povertyincluding parental unemployment and low wages, housing instability, concentrated disadvantage in segregated neighborhoods, stress, malnutrition, and health problems like asthmadeserve similar treatment. 102. 21. See note 17. Donate. Ron Haskins, Marriage, Parenthood, and Public Policy, National Affairs 19, Spring (2014): 5572, at 60. 100. Another estimate found that in the year following a divorce, a single-mother household suffers a 40 percent income loss, with little change in subsequent years. Peter Fugiel, personal correspondence with author (Rothstein), January 4, 2015. Pia Rebello Britto, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, and Terri M. Griffin, Maternal Reading and Teaching Patterns: Associations With School Readiness in Low-Income African American Families,Reading Research Quarterly41, no. Where hazardous levels exist, housing code enforcement, home repair subsidies, even demolition are appropriate to ensure that children live in lead-safe housing. Duncan and Magnuson, 2011, online appendix Table 3.A5 and Table 3.A6. These children are still of school age today, the oldest in high school, with their siblings in the lower grades. Although employer demands for evening and night work will continue, incentives are plausible to discourage employers from scheduling split or rotating shifts that impede employees ability to make consistent child care arrangements and provide stable home lives for children. Every lead-in-blood increase of 1 microgram per deciliter is associated with a loss of about three-quarters of an IQ point up to about 10 micrograms, and a loss of one-quarter of a point for every microgram above 10.105 Using this estimate, it appears that the decrease of lead-in-blood from 16 to 3 micrograms per deciliter from 1976 to 1991, noted above, might have been responsible for an average IQ increase for American children of as much as six points. See note 90. Daniel P. Miller and Wen-Jui Han, Maternal Nonstandard Work Schedules and Adolescent Overweight,American Journal of Public Health98, no. Available data are too confounded by national differences (e.g., Cuban versus Mexican) and generational differences (recent immigrants versus assimilated third-generation and beyond). Student Council Bonding Events 33) Lunch Box Social: On Valentines Day, have a Stuco lunch party and alternate girls cooking for guys and guys cooking for girls. "The council was shown the scale model and said it was good, and then decided the completed sculpture would . Lauren K. Wolf, The Crimes of Lead, Chemical and Engineering News 92, no. National Center for Healthy Housing. Harolyn Tarr, Randall E. Raymond, and Margaret Tufts, The Effects of Lead Exposure on School Outcome Among Children Living and Attending Public Schools in Detroit, MI,Detroit: Department of Health and Wellness Promotion, Detroit Public Schools, 2009. Variable schedules prevent parents from enrolling in school themselves, an activity that might enable them to provide better intellectual environments and models of educational aspiration for their children.80, In general, the harmful effects of working non-standard schedules seem to be more pronounced for children of parents who work night shifts (starting after 9 p.m.) than for children of parents who work other non-standard schedules (evening shifts beginning after 2 p.m., rotating or variable shifts). 119. 1 (2009): 3649. 1 (2008): 286. Pamela Joshi and Karen Bogen, Nonstandard Schedules and Young Childrens Behavioral Outcomes Among Working LowIncome Families,Journal of Marriage and Family69, no. Lower-class children typically have more unstructured leisure time where they need not follow adult rules, while middle-class children typically have more structured schedules.15. 99. Ribar, 2015, forthcoming. The decline in teen pregnancy in recent years has not been fully explained by researchers; lower lead-in-blood levels may provide part of the explanation.113, Young bodies treat lead as though it were calcium, essential to healthy brain development. 10 (2007): 111821. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Tested and Confirmed Elevated Blood Lead Levels by State, Year, and Blood Lead Level Group for Children <72 Months, 2014. Social dysfunction is a core deficit associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. See note 64, 79. Susan B. Neuman and Donna C. Celano, Giving Our Children a Fighting Chance: Poverty, Literacy, and the Development of Information Capital (New York: Teachers College Press, 2012, pp. Lambert, Fugiel, and Henly, 2014. See note 58. National Center for Healthy Housing, Issue Brief: Childhood Lead Exposure and Educational Outcomes, p. 2. 52. Wen-Jui Han, Maternal Nonstandard Work Schedules and Child Cognitive Outcomes,Child Development76, no. Beginning with the 1986 child cohort, teen pregnancy and young adult violent crime declined rapidly; by 2009, teen pregnancy was less than 30 per 1,000 teenagers (less than half its earlier peak), and violent crimes were only 4.5 per 1,000 Americans (about 60 percent of its earlier peak). 4453). Planning and organizing events has given me the opportunity to communicate and meet new people. See note 90. 98. Adulthood: family income 300% of poverty, Source: Grannis and Sawhill (2013);[44] Howard and Reeves (2014)[45]. 15. 83. Parents with less education have fewer educational interactions with their children at home. Waldfogel, Craigie, and Brooks-Gunn, 2010. Recent immigration of Africans now also poses a challenge to researchers analyzing data for a category that blends together such immigrants with descendants of American slaves, the group to which the terms African American, black, or, previously, Negro or colored have previously applied. Middle-class children with more choice-making opportunities in daily interactions with parents, as well as with more participation in structured leisure activities (e.g., music lessons, organized sports), may be more comfortable navigating environments similar to classrooms than lower-class children more accustomed to following direct instructions and having more unstructured time.28 This difference may be especially advantageous for middle-class children after elementary school, when making intellectual choices (critical thinking) becomes more important in school curricula. 63. See note 94. Public service campaigns have stressed the importance of identifying students who have a fascination with guns or violence. 36. See note 3. c. Most research reported here is correlational, exposing association between factors but not proving that one factor causes another. Better sex education in schools, improving contraception advice and availability in school-based health clinics, mass media campaigns to encourage men to use condoms, and expansion of Medicaid coverage for long-acting womens contraception can all contribute to reducing unintended teen pregnancy. 89. See note 37. Single parents are less able to provide resources for childrenhigh-quality child care, books, computers, and consumer goods (such as cell phones, shoes, and clothes) that give children status with peersand less able to offer structure, conversation, and time.46 The importance of lower income in explaining the adverse effects of single parenthood is suggested by data showing that children of single mothers do better when fathers pay child support than when fathers do notalthough fathers who pay child support may also be involved with their children in other ways, also contributing to better outcomes.47, Single parents time is also scarcer. David Deming, Early Childhood Intervention and Life-Cycle Skill Development: Evidence From Head Start, American Economic Journal-Applied Economics 1, no. 104. For teenagers, delaying a first birth improves their childrens circumstances as adults in terms of annual incomes, likelihood of depression, and chances of single parenthood.43. When brains absorb lead instead of calcium, connections essential to executive functions, like control of aggression, develop less adequately.114 Low-income childrens diets are lower in calcium than higher-income childrens; among low-income children, black childrens diets are lower in calcium than white childrens, making black children more likely to absorb lead.115. Wen-Jui Han and Daniel P. Miller, Parental Work Schedules and Adolescent Depression,Health Sociology Review18, no. 108. 56. Steer, M. Ellis, and A.M. Emond, Effects of Early Childhood Lead Exposure on Academic Performance and Behaviour of School Age Children,Archives of Disease in Childhood 94, no. For example, this report describes how poor parental literacy and irregular work schedules each varies by race and social class and affects childrens outcomes. Magnuson and Duncan, 2014. 125. Anna Gassman-Pines, Low-Income Mothers Nighttime and Weekend Work: Daily Associations With Child Behavior, Mother-Child Interactions, and Mood,Family Relations 60, no. 6 (2004): 156068. Middle-class children who are used to operating in controlled environments, similar to classrooms, may be more likely to thrive in school compared with children who are used to unstructured time on the one hand and disciplinary action on the other. See note 39. National Center for Educational Statistics, (n.d.), Early Childhood Longitudinal Program: Kindergarten Class of 201011.. Todd A. Jusko, Charles R. Henderson Jr., Bruce P. Lanphear, Deborah A. Cory-Slechta, Patrick J. Parsons, and Richard L. Canfield, Blood Lead Concentrations <10 g/dL and Child Intelligence at 6 Years of Age,Environmental Health Perspectives 116 (2), (2008): 24348. McLanahan et al., 2010. (Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, January 28, 2013). 1 When school improvement is not complemented by policies to narrow social class differences, students' chances of success are greatly diminished. Jeanne Brooks-Gunn and Lisa Markman, The Contribution of Parenting to Ethnic and Racial Gaps in School Readiness,The Future of Children15, no. Helen F. Ladd, Presidential Address: Education and Poverty: Confronting the Evidence, Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 31, no. Zhang, 2013. This reports key findings are as follows: Policymakers are perplexed about addressing the impact of racial and socioeconomic class differences on student outcomes. Children with parents who work non-standard hours are heavier than those whose parents work regular schedules. According to a 2021 study of multiple centers, nearly 3 in 4 (74.7%) of medical students agreed the pandemic had significantly disrupted their education. 81. 2 (Fall 2010): 87112, at p. 94. See note 42. David L. Olds, Lois Sadler, and Harriet Kitzman, Programs for Infants and Toddlers: Recent Evidence From Randomized Trials, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48, no. Many states scale child care subsidies to the number of hours parents work, so parents working irregular and variable schedules are at heightened risk of losing eligibility for subsidies and, when they do, can no longer afford to place their children in formal centers.73, Parents with non-standard schedules find it more difficult to spend time with children and engage in cognitively stimulating activities with them.74 For example, for low-income African American mothers of preschool children, each additional nighttime hour of work is associated with a decrease in cognitively stimulating mother-child activities of about 1.5 percentile points in a normal distribution of mothers engagement in such activities. Raising the minimum wage and the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) would support marriage for those who presently cannot afford it. A 2006 survey found that in higher-income communities there were fewer than 1,000 children per physician, and 86 percent of doctors were board certified. Julia R. Henly and Susan J. Lambert, Unpredictable Work Timing in Retail Jobs: Implications for Employee Work-Life Outcomes, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 67, no. All children should be screened for lead. For the characteristics reviewed below, where recent research provides reliable information, we discuss: We conclude by reviewing practical reforms to narrow differences in these characteristics that would, in turn, likely help narrow outcome gaps. From March 2020 to October 2020, mental health-related emergency department visits increased 24% for children ages 5 to 11 and 31% for those ages 12 to 17 compared with 2019 emergency department visits, according to CDC data (Leeb, R. T., et al., Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. Today, when remains of lead pollution from gasoline, along with lead paint in poorly maintained residences, are the chief sources of lead, disadvantaged children in older and congested urban areas are most affected. But the inevitable distribution of outcomes associated with a given set of social and economic background characteristics should not mislead us to the conclusion that all disadvantaged children can be above average compared to children of similar background characteristics. Donna K. Ginther and Robert A. Pollak, Family Structure and Childrens Educational Outcomes: Blended Families, Stylized Facts, and Descriptive Regressions, Demography41, no. Expand Head Start to enable all low-income parents to enroll children at age 3, and expand half-day Head Start to full day (less than half of all Head Start centers are full day). College-educated parents have non-daytime shifts one-third as often as parents with high school degrees or less. No influence is fully determinative. 72. Lower-class parents expect more deference to authority. L. Canfield, C.R. 4. By lower class, we refer to families with mutually reinforcing characteristics that usually include low income, less educational attainment, less wealth, living in disadvantaged neighborhoods, and others.
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